Number of words: 577
The world of small tribal kingdoms described above went through a major change in the third and fourth centuries BCE. This happened around the same time all over the world. This was not really because of a change in technology but because of a change in political ideas and ambition. Within a couple of generations, quite a few leaders were inspired by the idea of an empire. These leaders then began looking at how they could conquer other parts of the world.
The first of the empire-builders was cyrus the Great of Persia in the sixth century BCE. But it is only in the fourth century BCE that we begin to see empire building on a totally different scale. In China, King Hui of Qin began a cycle of conquest around 330 BCE that would lead to building the first empire under Shi Huangdi a century later. At around the same time, Alexander the Great took control of Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Bactria and Persia.
Then, in the winter of 327–326 BCE, Alexander marched into India. He built an alliance with ambhi, the king of Taxila. Together they defeated Porus on the banks of the Jhelum. It’s possible that the name Porus refers to the Puru tribe that had inhabited the area since Rig Vedic times. Alexander wanted to march eastwards but his troops were tired. There were also stories about a large Magadhan army waiting to attack them in the Gangetic plains. With an unwilling army, Alexander had little choice. He decided to return. But he did not go back the way he had come—he chose to sail down the Indus under the mistaken belief that the Indus was part of the upper reaches of the Nile. He thought that if they just sailed down the Indus, they would end up in the Mediterranean!
Alexander and his people reached this conclusion because of the similarities between the plants and animals of India and those of the upper reaches of the Nile. As they sailed down the Indus, they defeated many tribes and destroyed several settlements. There is also a fascinating account of how a local chieftain entertained Alexander with a gladiatorial match between a lion and a group of ferocious dogs that he claimed had been bred from tigresses!
On reaching the sea, Alexander discovered his mistake. They were then forced to march along the dry Makran and Persian Gulf coast—the same route that early humans had used when they migrated east to the subcontinent. However, climatic conditions and the coastline had changed a lot since then. Without proper maps, provisions and water, the desert proved to be a nightmare. Soldiers and pack animals died in large numbers. Much of the wealth they had acquired from their conquests had to be abandoned because there weren’t enough men and animals to carry the loot. When Alexander’s army finally reached Babylon they remained undefeated but they had suffered heavy losses. Alexander died soon afterwards, possibly poisoned by followers who no longer believed in his leadership. His empire was divided up amongst his generals and his young son was murdered. It was the lack of geographical knowledge that proved to be Alexander’s undoing, not a sword. As we shall see, when Europeans attempted to take control of India two millennia later, they would take great care to map it.
Excerpted from Page 68-70 pf ‘The Incredible History of the Geography of India by Saneev Sanyal